American Pearls 



HOWARD E. WASHBURN 



6 5X9 £06 Z00 



l''il llli 'IMI IP I 



American Pearls 



HOWARD E. WASHBURN 



Price, 50 cents 

THE ANN ARBOR PRESS 
Ann Arbor, Mich. 



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I wo Uooies KecBivdii I 

JUN 29 1908 



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COi-'V a. 



COPYRIGHT 1908 

BY 

HOWARD B. WASHBURN 




Plate I. Typical Pearl Shapes, Natural Size. 

Illustrated from fine American Pearls in the collection of Mr. Herman 
My€r, 41 and 43 Maiden Lane, New York, N. Y. 



PLATE I. DESCRIPTION AND WEIGHTS. 

No. 1. Round pearl. 52 grains. 

No. 2. Pear, (drop, oval or egg). 48 grains. 

No. 3. Button pearl. 6 grains. 

No. 4. Turtle-back. 32 grains. 

No. 5. Flat Baroque pearl. 34 grains. 

No. 6. Wing pearl. 18 grains. 

No. 7. Dark green Baroque. 263 grains. 

No. 8. Rare heart-shaped Baroque. Color— pink. 

239 grains. 
No. 9. Large Baroque. 308 grains. 
No. 10. Banded pearl. Barrel shape. 31 grains. 
No. 11. Round black pearl. 14 grains. 
No. 12. Twinned pearls. Four have grown together. 

11 grains. 
No. 13. Pear shaped Baroque. Color — dark red. 9 

grains. 
No. 14. Flat pear shaped Baroque. 22 grains. 
No. 15. Odd shaped Baroque. 108 grains. 



CONTENTS 

American Pearls . 5 

The Pearl Mussel and the Pearl .... 10 

American Pearl Fisheries 17 

Pearl Fishing 24 

Value 31 

Dealers in American Pearls .... 35 

Care of Pearls 36 

Origin of Pearls 37 

Culture Pearls 43 



Plate I, Typical Pearl Shapes. 

Plate II. Specimens of Mussel Shells. 

Plate III. Mussel Shell and 68 grain Pearl. 

Plate IV. Necklace of Fine American Pearls. 

Plate V. Japanese Culture Pearls. 



AMERICAN PEARLS. 

There are two classes of pearls: "oriental," and 
"fresh-water.'' In ancient times pearls were taken 
from oysters found in the seas along the coasts of 
Ceylon, Arabia and other Oriental countries. As the 
Orient was the source of pearl supply the pearls com- 
ing from there were called oriental pearls. The lus- 
tre of a pearl came to be called its orient, and the 
term is still used to describe the peculiar sheen of the 
gem. Although pearls are now found in other seas 
besides those of the Orient, the term "oriental pearls" 
is applied to all true pearls taken from oysters living 
in salt water. 

At an early time, however, pearls taken from the 
fresh-water oysters were recognized as valuable gems. 
Pearls from the rivers of Britain were famous in the 
time of the Roman dominion. The streams of the 
British Isles and some upon the continent were the 
source of fresh-water pearls until the fisheries of 
America came to be worked. While these fisheries 
are still in their infancy they have given to the world 
a vast supply of pearls that rival the oriental pearls 
in beauty and value. These fresh-water gems taken 
from American streams and lakes are quite generally 
called American pearls. 

When American pearls first came into the market 
there was a strong prejudice against them and many 
dealers thought they were of little value in compari- 



son with oriental pearls. The following quotation 
from a jewelers' trade journaP is interesting chiefly 
as showing the attitude towards American pearls at 
that time. 

^'Milwaukee, Wis.;, Aug. 4. — Bunde & Upmeyer 
have on exhibition in their window a pearl taken from 
a Wisconsin clam which they claim is worth a large 
sum. They have made large purchases of Wisconsin 
pearls and no longer seek to keep secret the fact that 
they are dealing largel}^ in these native gems. 

"Mr. Upmeyer has been in Europe about a month, 
and has sold many Wisconsin pearls in that country. 
It is also stated that the firm has conducted a lucra- 
tive business with Tiffany & Co., New York." 

"The other jewelers of Milwaukee, Wis., having 
made sport of Bunde & Upmeyer's statement, pub- 
lished above, and having declared that Wisconsin 
pearls have no value except as curiosities, a reporter 
for the New York World interviewed Charles F. Cook, 
of Tiffany & Co., in New York. 

"Mr. Cook stated that his firm has several Wis- 
consin pearls valued at from $300 to |500 each, sev- 
eral Ohio pearls worth |900 each, and that he knows 
of single fresh water American pearls worth more 
than |2,000. He admitted that his house purchases 
fresh water pearls each year, and that the Wisconsin 
fisheries are the most prolific known." 

It must be remembered that the above article was 
written at a time when the American fisheries were 
just beginning to be really worked. During the pre- 



* The Jewelers' Weekly, August 7, 1890. 
— 6 — 



vious year (1889) large finds had been made along 
the Sugar River in Wisconsin and other states. Yet 
many jewelers thought that the gems were valuable 
chiefly as curiosities. Bunde & Upmeyer, however, 
recognized their value and bought a great many 
pearls, especially from the Wisconsin fisheries. At 
no time did this firm desire to keep secret the fact 
that they were "dealing largely in these native gems." 
They were among the first to buy American pearls 
and they still continue to deal in them extensively. 

With the greater development of the American 
fisheries there has come a decided change in the re- 
gard for domestic pearls. W^hile it is natural that 
wearers of pearls in America should have a prefer- 
ence for gems that are brought from afar, this prefer- 
ence is not so great but what the true beauty and 
worth of American pearls is generally recognized. In 
the words of a noted writer, "the fresh-water pearls 
may not surpass the oriental pearl but can without 
depreciation take their place beside it." 

Perhaps one of the most distinctive characteris- 
tics of American pearls is their variety of colors. The 
brilliantly colored and richly lined mussels inhabit- 
ing American streams and lakes form pearls of al- 
most every hue. They range in color from white, 
through pink, yelloAV, salmon, fawn, purple, red, green, 
brown, blue, black, passing through the several shades 
of these colors, often irridescent and of wonderful 
beauty. The irridescence adds to the lustre of the 
pearl, and some of the fresh-water gems are more 
lustrous than the best oriental pearls. 

— 7 — 



American pearls are also of many odd and curious 
shapes. Until quite recently these irregular shapes 
have not had a great deal of value. The fashion of 
eccentric designs^in jewelry has created a demand 
for these baroque pearls because they can be used 
to excellent advantage in such work. Some of the 
finest of this baroque pearl jewelry is made by Cross- 
man Co., of New York City. At one time only pearls 
of symmetrical shapes were sought, but baroques are 
now a prominent feature of the pearl industry and 
many persons deal in them exclusively. 

The general price of pearls has been continually 
advancing and it is stated that this advance has been 
even more than that of diamonds in the last fifteen 
years. A Government Keport^ says: "The demand 
for American fresh-water pearls is strong, both in the 
domestic markets and abroad, especially in Paris, 
whither many pearls are taken directly from the pearl 
region." The readiness of foreign dealers to buy 
American pearls tends to raise prices here. The fol- 
lowing extract is taken from a jeweler's trade jour- 
nal :^ "Next to the American buyers the French mer- 
chants have been most largely represented during 
the last season, buyers from houses in Paris having 
remained in the vicinity of the fisheries all the year. 
The activity of the Frenchmen in buying pearls of 
the coveted shapes, colors and quality, added much 
to the troubles of the New York bidders. It is esti- 



""The Production of Precious Stones in 1906, by Douglass B. 
Sterrett. Govt. Print, 1907. 

'The Keystone, March, 1906. 

— 8 — 



mated that prices are now 25 to 35 per cent higher 
than they were a year ago, with the tendency contin- 
ually upward." With the depletion of some of the 
larger American fisheries there has been reported a 
scarcity of good fresh-water gems which has tended 
to further increase their price. 

It is well known that pearls have been prized as 
gems since the earliest records of mankind. From 
ancient times down to the present day the esteem 
for the pearl has not diminished. Rather it has in- 
creased. The subdued beauty and richness of a pearl 
appeals to all. Its costliness makes it a gem primar- 
ily for the rich. With the vast increase in the world's 
wealth during comparatively recent years, the use 
of pearls has been much extended. Demand for them 
is always great and people of wealth are willing to 
pay large sums for pearls that are the perfection of 
gems. 



— 9 — 



THE PEARL MUSSEL AND THE PEARL. 

The Naiades, or pearl-bearing fresh-water mus- 
sels, commonly called clams, are found in many parts 
of the world. They are particularly abundant in the 
lakes and streams of the TTnited States and Canada. 
It is estimated that there are over 600 distinct species 
living in North America, a large number of which 
are found in the Mississippi River and its tributaries.'' 
The scientific names of these species are somewhat 
confused and are of little value except to the con- 
chologist. Practically all of the varieties produce 
pearls. 

The pearl is the one gem that is not a mineral. 
Since it is the product of animal life, our knowledge 
of it must come from a study of the animal that pro- 
duces it. As yet complete knowledge regarding the 
pearl mussel or the pearl has not been obtained. Un- 
der the guidance of foreign governments elaborate 
investigations are being carried on at the marine 
fisheries to learn about the pearl oyster and its pearl. 
These investigations have proven valuable in enab- 
ling the fisheries to be regulated in a scientific man- 
ner, and also in giving much information regarding 
the formation of pearls. The importance of the pearl 
and pearl-button industries in the United States has 
made necessary a similar investigation here. It is 



* Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1898, p. 279. 
— 10 — 



said that the United States Fish Commission will un- 
dertake such an investigation in connection with the 
zoological department of the University of Missouri. 
The ultimate purpose will be to preserve the mussels 
as far as possible, and to devise a method to replenish 
the streams where the mussels have been recklessly 
exterminated. 

The life of a mussel is one of the many marvelous 
chapters in the book of Nature. Many thousands of 
eggs are developed within the ovaries of a single fe- 
male oyster. Each is a tiny bivalve when finally is- 
suing from the parent mussel. As the little mussel 
lies upon the bottom of the stream or pond, a thread 
or filament floats up that will attach to any fish that 
comes in contact with it. When such an attachment 
is made the tiny clam draws itself up and fastens on 
to the fish, where it soon becomes covered over or en- 
cysted. In this abode the little mussel lives and de- 
velops for a period of about two months. It then falls 
to the bottom to meet with new vicissitudes and if for- 
tune favors, to become a mature mussel. It is evident 
that the young of a mussel are subjected to a great 
many dangers. That one will be able to attach itself 
to a fish, is a remote probability. There are other 
dangers, such as being destroyed by other animals. 
As a result only a small percentage of the young de- 
velop. Yet such myriads are hatched that the supply 
of mussels is usually numerous. 

The mussel feeds by drawing a current of water 
through its body, gaining its sustenance from the in- 
gredients of the water. In so doing it takes in many 



forms of animal life as well as inanimate particles. 

Various kinds of mussels live under different con- 
ditions. Some are found in the quiet, almost stag- 
nant water of ponds. Others live in the quiet, but 
fresher A\'ater of lakes. Some of the river mussels 
live in the deep and quietly flowing portions of the 
stream, while others are found in shallow, swiftly 
flowing Avater. There are also differences in the char- 
acter of the river or lake bottoms in which the mus- 
sels live. Some varieties are found on mud, others 
on sand or gravel, and some exist among rocks and 
stones. 

The mussel or clam moves about to a considerable 
extent. It does so by means of its foot, the coarse 
white part usually seen protruding from the shells 
when the mussel is undisturbed. During the cold 
seasons of the year, the mussels move to deep water. 
In the warm season they are inclined to find shallow- 
er places. This is particularly true in regard to lakes, 
and is of some c(msequence in streams, especially the 
larger rivers. 

Most species of mussels are gregarious. Where 
there are any there are usually many. In the larger 
rivers these groups of clams constitute well defined 
beds. The size of some of these beds in the Mississip- 
pi River is very great. One was found near Mus- 
catine, Iowa, abimt two miles long and a quarter of 
a mile wide. Before depleted by continued fishing, 
the mussels in these beds were densely crowded, not 
only covering the entire bottom but often several 
layers deep. Holes in the bottom were sometimes 



found to contain many bushels of mussels. While 
these are principally of two or three species, it is be- 
lieved that there is a tendency for all mussels to be 
congregated. This does not mean, however, that mus- 
sels are not found scattered, because they are. But 
in most streams, certain portions prove to be more 
abundantly supplied with mussels than others. 

The shells of a mussel consist of two valves which 
fit together and enclose the animal. In formation, 
each valve or shell consists of three distinct parts or 
strata. The epidermis is the rough exterior. It is 
called conchioline and is composed largely of animal 
matter. Next to this is a harder strata containing 
more carbonate of lime. On the inside and lining the 
shell is the pearly strata or nacre. This differs from 
the second in its construction. The second is formed 
of minute prisms arranged vertically to the surface, 
the third, or nacreus strata consists of minute layers 
parallel to the surface. These layers are finely folded 
or corrugated, and the pearly lustre is due to their 
action upon light.*' 

The mantle is the part of the mussel that builds 
the shell, creates the pearly lining and incidentally 
forms pearls. It is a thin, delicate membrane cover- 
ing each valve and attached to it at the outer edge or 
pallial line. This organ by some mysterious process 
builds the shell in all its parts. It is supposed that 
different portions of the mantle deposit different shell 
materials. The extreme edge of the mantle is thought 
to excrete concholine, thereby continually building 



Encyclopedia Britanica, gth Ed. 14:609. 
- 13 — 



out the edge of the shell. The surface next to the 
shell deposits the inner strata. If a shell is examined 
it will be noticed that certain parts of the pearly in- 
terior are more lustrous than others. The posterior 
end, or tip of a shell is always the brightest. (See 
Plates II and III). It is for this reason that pearls 
formed at this part of the mussel are the best, because 
given the finest lustre. The anterior part of the shell 
is a dull, opaque white, while the lower part usually 
has a good lustre, becoming brightest at the tip. It 
frequently happens that the interior of the same shell 
is of different colors, for instance, one end may be 
white and the other colored. It is not yet known 
what differences there are in the parts of a mantle 
to cause the various shell formations and colors, but 
that such differences exist is evident. 

The mantle is the part of the mussel that creates 
the pearl. In secreting the material that builds the 
shell, it occasionally happens that concretions of these 
materials are formed apart from the shell. These are 
pearls. When these occur they may be composed en- 
tirely of the substance of any one layer of the shell, 
or of all the layers of which the shell is composed. 
Concretions of conchioline, the substance of the outer 
strata, occur, though rarely. They are usually of a 
dark brown color, often quite transparent, but they 
have little commercial value. Concretions of the sub- 
stance of the second strata of the shell are most com- 
mon. These are the chalky, lifeless pearls that are 
found so often but which have little value. Since 
a pearl is of no value as a gem unless it has a brilliant 

— 14 — 



lustre, the gem pearl must be formed entirely, or at 
least externally of the lustrous inner portions of the 
shell. These concretions of the bright inner strata of 
the shell are the gem pearls, which are valued so 

highly. 

The structure of a pearl consists of concentric 
layers similar to the structure of an onion. It fre- 
quently happens that the layers of a pearl are formed 
of different substances. The outer layer may be bright 
while the interior layers are chalky, or vice versa. 
When the outer layer is dull, it is sometimes peeled, 
in hope that the layer beneath may have a good lustre. 

About 90% of the substance of a pearl consists 
of carbonate of lime, the remaining substance being 
organic matter and water. Since so great a portion 
of a pearl consists of carbonate of lime, it is thought 
that the presence of limestone rock along the course 
of the stream may have an influence upon the produc- 
tion of pearls in that more lime is carried by the 
water, thus supplying the mussel with more pearl 
producing material. 

Pearls are formed in various shapes. The princi- 
pal shapes are illustrated in Plate I, from specimens 
of fine American pearls. 

Round pearls, and Pear Shapes ( including Drop, 
Oval and Egg shapes), are formed within the soft 
portions of the mussel and are not attached to the 
shell. 

Button pearls are those having a flat side, usually 
caused by attachment to the shell. Wing pearls are 

— 15 — 



long, slender pieces, usually formed near the hing of 
the shell. 

Baroques are irregular and odd-shaped pearls. 
Frank Koeckeritz, an experienced dealer in American 
pearls, estimates the proportionate occurrence of 
these shapes to be about as follows : 

Drop, 5 per cent; Pear, 5 per cent; Oval, 10 per 
cent ; Round, 15 per cent ; Button, 25 per cent ; Irreg- 
ular, 40 per cent. 

During the progress of pearl formation it fre- 
quently happens that two or more pearls become fas- 
tened together. These curious formations are called 
"twined" pearls. The surface of a pearl is often 
marred by points or knobs, as if sand or other foreign 
particles had been attached and covered with the 
pearly coating leaving the exterior of the pearl rough. 

Pearls of good shape are frequently encircled by 
a narrow lustreless band, the otlier portions of the 
pearl being of good lustre. A band is a serious de- 
fect in a pearl and reduces its value very much. It 
is thought by some that "free" pearls (those unat- 
tached to the shell) are rolled or revolved while with- 
in the mussel. If this is true, it may account for the 
occurrence of banded pearls. 



— i6 




Plate II. Specimens of Mussel Shells. 

A — Anterior eud. P — Posterior end or tip. 
L, ly — Ligaments. 



AMERICAN PEARL FISHERIES. 

The taking of pearls from American streams is 
not a new thing. The early explorers of the country 
found the native Indians in possession of a great num- 
ber of pearls. In fact one of the incentives for many 
of the early conquests was the hope of obtaining 
pearls. As the Indians used the mussels for food it 
was natural that they should find many gems. The 
natives' attitude toward these, however, was quite 
different from that of the whites. While they no 
doubt appreciated in a way the beauty of the pearls, 
they ruined the gems by drilling them with heated 
instruments, thus rendering them valueless in the 
eyes of the new-comers. 

After the Indians gave way to the white race the 
latter was so engrossed with the other natural re- 
sources of the new country that for a long time little 
attention was paid to the treasures of pearl contained 
in the numerous streams and lakes. It w as not until 
the year 1857 that interest in American pearls was 
aroused. In that year the famous pearl known as the 
"Queen" was found at Notch Brook, New Jersey. 
This pearl weighed 93 grains, was perfect in every 
respect and was sold abroad for |2,500. It is now 
valued at several times that amount. 

The discovery of the "Queen" pearl created a great 
deal of excitement. People abandoned their ordinary 
occupations and flocked to the streams to fish for 

— 17-- 



pearls. While many pearls were found, the mussels 
were soon rendered so few in number that the work 
ceased to be profitable. 

The history of pearl fishing in America, till quite 
recently, is but a repetition of pearl excitements in 
different parts of the country. The interest of a com- 
munity is aroused by the finding of a valuable pearl 
and pearl fishing is then carried to an excess, with the 
result that the mussel beds are soon depleted. With 
the depletion of the mussel beds, the general interest 
in pearl fishing which has been aroused by the tem- 
porary excitement ceases, and the real work of pearl 
fishing is done by those who have the inclination and 
perseverance to carry it on. 

The Little Miami River in Ohio is mentioned as 
one of the streams in which fine fresh-water pearls 
were found at an early date. Extended pearl fishing 
began in this river with the finding of several valua- 
ble pearls near W^aynesville, Ohio, in 1876. This and 
other Ohio streams continue to yield many gem pearls. 

In a few years the interest extended to other 
states. In 1889, the Wisconsin streams began to be 
fished for pearls. The excitement started when val- 
uable finds were made in the Rock River and its trib- 
utaries. The pearls taken from the Sugar River are 
justly famous as ranking among the finest of Ameri- 
can pearls. Although this stream has been overfished 
for many years, it still continues to yield valuable 
pearls. The activity in pearl hunting extended to 
many other Wisconsin streams as well as streams in 
Indiana, Illinois and other Northwestern States. 

— 18 — 



In the year 1897, there occurred a very great pearl 
excitement which centered in Arkansas but which in- 
fluenced pearl fishing in many other states. It started 
by the finding of many pearls lying in the mud in 
the lakes and bayous of Western Arkansas. A Mem- 
phis Syndicate was formed and after some difficul- 
ties in the courts secured the exclusive right to dredge 
for x)earls in two of the most favorable lakes. The 
newspapers gave much prominence to the pearl finds 
and these elaborate accounts aroused a general inter- 
est in pearl hunting. The streams of Arkansas as 
well as those of other states were for a while the scenes 
of immense activity. This excitement, however, 
quieted down in time, but pearl fishing continued to 
be carried on as an ordinary and profitable industry. 

These are the principal steps in the development 
of American pearl fisheries. There are of course a 
great many instances of pearl finds having been made 
which attracted only the attention of the immediate 
locality. The pearl excitements mentioned directed 
the attention of nearly the entire people to the pearl 
resources of the country. As a result, a great number 
of fine pearls have been obtained which have estab- 
lished the importance of the American pearl fisheries 
as a source of pearl supjjly. Moreover, a permanent 
interest in the pearl fisheries has been established, 
and several thousand persons spend a part of each 
year in the work of gathering pearls. 

The center of the pearl industry in the United 
States is undoubtedly along the Mississippi River. 
The pearl button factories furnish a ready market 

— 19 — 



for the shells, which makes the taking of mussels a 
paying occupation even without the finding of pearls. 
As such enormous quantities of mussels are taken 
from this river each year, the output of pearls is very 
great. Some of the large rivers as well as smaller 
streams tributary to the Mississippi have the pearl- 
button industry as an additional stimulus to the pearl 
industry. 

The Arkansas rivers, especially the White, Black, 
Cache, St. Francis, Eed, Arkansas and their tribu- 
taries are the source of many of the finest American 
pearls. The Iowa, Cedar, Skunk, and Des Moines 
rivers in Iowa are fished to a considerable extent. The 
Wisconsin River is fished for pearls as well as the 
Hock River in Wisconsin and Illinois. The streams 
of Missouri, particularly the many tributaries of the 
Missouri River, are the source of many pearls. The 
rivers and streams of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee 
continue to produce some of the most valuable Amer- 
ican pearls. The Ohio River has proved to be rich in 
its supply of pearls. Many valuable pearls have been 
found recently in the Kankakee River in Indiana and 
Illinois. Pearl fishing is an important industry along 
the Wabash River and its tributaries, the industry be- 
ing centered about Vincennes, Indiana. 

Pearl fishing is carried on in many streams be- 
sides those mentioned. The small rivers and creeks 
freciueutly contain the finest varieties of mussels and 
l>roduce pearls of the best (juality. These small 
streams are so numerous that the field for the pearl 
industry is very great. Many pearl hunters leave the 



grounds that are regularly fished and work in the 
smaller streams that have not yet been touched. A 
great deal of pearl fishing on these streams is done 
quietly, and the sources of pearl supply are often kept 
as secret as possible. A recent writer** states that the 
streams in the northwestern section of New York 
State are regularly fished, but without excitement. 
The Canadian streams are fished to quite an extent 
and it is believed by some that the northern streams 
contain the better varieties of pearl producing mus- 
sels. 

It is practically impossible to determine with any 
degree of certainty the value of the output of pearls 
from the American fisheries. A Government Report' 
says : "The pearl industry is carried on in such a way 
that it is not possible to collect statistics showing the 
production. Buyers and dealers, not only from New 
York and other eastern cities, but even from Paris, 
visit the Mississippi region in the pearl-gathering sea- 
son, travel from point to point, and at the end of the 
season return to their places of business. Many 
small dealers sell to larger ones on the spot; others 
send their product off to be marketed. In many cases 
parcels of pearls change hands two or three times be- 
fore appearing in the gem markets. Pearls amount- 
ing to many thousands of dollars in value are ex- 
ported annually, which apparently have not been re- 
ported to the Bureau of Statistics of the Department 

•The Pearl (1907), by W. R. Cattelle, page 261. 

' Production of Precious Stones in 1906, by Douglass B. Ster- 
rett. Govt. Print. 



of Commerce and Labor. Another part of the report 
reads, "the demand for domestic fresh-water pearls 
has been strong, and the production large, but it can- 
not be accurately given. They came chiefly from the 
Mississippi Valley region. A portion of the produc- 
tion has been exported, and in return there has been 
an importation of nearly two and a half million dol- 
lars worth." 

The value of the American mussel fisheries has di- 
rected the attention of the government to the neces- 
sity of protecting them from exhaustion. In 1894 
Mr. George F. Kunz, the noted gem expert, at the re- 
quest of the United States Fish Commission, under- 
took an examination of the pearl industry in the 
United States. In his elaborate report on "The Fresh- 
Water Pearl Fisheries of the United States,"^ Mr. 
Kunz carefully reviewed the conditions of the in- 
dustry and recommended legislative protection to 
conserve the pearl resources. In 1898 Mr. Hugh M. 
Smith associated with the United States Fish Com- 
mission, examined the mussel fisheries of the Missis- 
sippi River and in his report® recommended their pro- 
tection. One important suggestion made was to pro- 
hibit fishing during the portion of the year in which 
the mussels spawn. This is from January to May, 
though it is known that certain species spawn during 
the summer and fall. Other suggestions are to pre- 



' United States Fish Commission Bulletin for 1897, pages y^^ 
to 426. Plate I to XXII. 

° The Mussel Fishery and Pearl-Button Industry of the Missis- 
sippi River. United States Fish Commission Bulletin for 1898. 
Pages 289-314. Plates 65 to 85. 



vent the destruction of mussels from the pollution of 
streams hj the refuse of factories and the sewage of 
cities, and to prohibit the taking of small mussels. 
In 1903 the state of Arkansas passed a law regulating 
the taking of mussels. The law prohibited mussel 
fishing from April 1st to June 1st, and also prohibited 
the use of the "crowfoot." When the law took effect 
in March, 1903, it created such an opposition from 
the mussel fishermen, the pearl buyers and button 
manufacturers that it was repealed on the 20th of 
May of the same year. 

Mr. W. D. Burd, a pearl dealer who has had long 
experience with American pearls and fisheries, be- 
lieves that the use of the crowfoot should be regulated. 
Many mussels are struck by the hooks and injured or 
killed but are not caught. Mr. Burd suggests that 
the hooks should be made of heavier wire and the 
prongs shorter and not so sharp. 

At present there seems to be no regulation of the 
American fisheries and the fishermen are free to take 
the mussels at any time of the year, in any way and 
in any quantities even to the complete exhaustion of 
the beds. Recent agitations indicate that something 
may be done in the near future to regulate mussel 
fishing. Foreign governments controlling the marine 
fisheries secure careful investigation of the conditions 
of the fisheries in order to regulate them in a scientific 
manner. When more exact knowledge regarding the 
pearl mussel is obtained it is probable that much 
may be done to maintain and aid both the pearl and 
the pearl button industries. 

— 23 — 



PEARL FISHING. 

In fishing for pearls, the first thing, of course, is 
to get the mussels. This is usually not a difficult 
matter. A few suggestions, however, and a brief de- 
scription of some of the methods used in river fishing, 
may be of help to those trying the work for the first 
time, and along unfished streams where there is as 
yet no opportunity to see how the actual work is done. 

We have already seen that mussels live in differ- 
ent portions of a stream and in water of various 
depths. It is necessary to try the stream or lake 
to find where the mussels are, and their situation 
will determine the best method for vsecuring them. 
The implements principally used are the "water-tele- 
scope," the "hand-rake," and the "crow-foot." 

The water-telescope is often used in shallow water, 
especially where the bottom is stony. The telescope 
is not difficult to make. It is merely a long narrow 
box made of thin boards. A convenient size is 6 inches 
wide, 4 inches deep, and 30 inches long. The bottom 
is fitted with a piece of glass and should be water- 
tight. A handle may be put on for convenience. With 
this the fisherman wades in the water and submerg- 
ing the glass end, is able to see plainly any mussels 
lying on the bottom. These can then be taken with 
a stick with a clasp on the end, or with a small rake. 
The water telescope can also be used from a boat in 
deep water when the water is not muddy. Another 

— 24 — 




OUTLINE SHAPE OF "CROW FOOT." 




CROW FOOT" HOOK, ACTUAL SIZE. 
— 25 — 



form of the telescope is to have it made out of zinc 
with the glass end fitted in so as to be perfectly water 
tight. 

The hand-rake is the usual implement used in 
taking mussels from the ordinary stream. This is a 
long handled rake with teeth 6 or 8 inches in length. 
The back of the rake is covered with wire netting 
forming a basket in which to receive the mussels. If 
the stream is wide and deep, the rake can be used 
from a boat; if the stream is narrow it can be used 
from the shore. The hand-rake is a common and ef- 
fective means of getting mussels. 

Another device that is used to a great extent 
along the larger rivers and especially the Mississippi, 
is the crow-foot. This consists of an iron pipe or bar 
about 6 feet in length, to which are attached, at in- 
tervals of about six inches, series of four-pronged 
hooks. The hooks are made of stout wire (about 
size No. 9), and are so fastened together that the 
prongs are at right angles to one another. These 
hooks are attached to the iron bar by strong cord or 
chains, usually chains, so as to be freely moveable. 
There are about four hooks on each chain. This con- 
trivance is allowed to drag upon the bottom of the 
stream. As the mussel usually lies with its shells 
slightly opened whenever a hook strikes between 
them, the mussel shuts down on it and holds firmly 
until taken off. It is surprising how successful this 
method is and wherever it can be used it is very 
effective. 

jfjBuipjo UT3 SI q:^iAV spssura uado o:^ Suii{:^ :}soq y^x 

— 26 — 



steel table or case-knife. The blade is long and flex- 
ible and will follow the curves of the shell. There are 
two ligaments which hold the shells together. When 
these are cut the shells fall open, allowing an easy 
examination for pearls. 

In opening the mussels there is one caution to be 
observed. It is this: Do not insert the knife at the 
tip or posterior end of the shell but always at the 
anterior (See Plates II and III). The reason is that 
the tip of the shell is always the brightest part and 
pearls formed there are usually the best. Therefore 
care should be used so as not to injure them with 
the knife. 

Clams should not be opened while one is standing 
in the water or in any place where a pearl falling 
from the mussel would be lost. Valuable pearls have 
been lost b}^ such carelessness. 

In fishing for pearls, the mussels should not be 
opened by cooking or steaming, as heat is very liable 
to injure a pearl by destroying its lustre. It is said 
that at the time the Queen pearl was found in Notch 
Brook, New Jersey, a pearl weighing 400 grains and 
what would probably have been the finest pearl of 
modern times was rendered valueless by cooking the 
mussel. The practice of steaming or vatting the 
mussels is quite general with those who gather shells 
for the pearl-button factories. A false bottom is put 
in the vat to prevent any pearls falling from the 
shells from coming in contact with the heated bot- 
tom. Yet any heat injures a pearl, and dealers say 
that many fine pearls are injured or destroyed by this 

— 2-/ — 



method of opening the mussels. Mr. John F. Morse, 
of Chicago, a large dealer in American pearls, de- 
clines to buy pearls that have the appearance of com- 
ing from mussels that have been steamed, vatted or 
cooked. When the mussel fishing is done primarily 
for the shells, the best method for removing the meats 
is by cooking. When the mussel fishing is done for 
pearls, it is advisable to open the mussels by hand. 

Too great care cannot be used in searching the 
mussel for pearls. The best shaped pearls are us- 
ually lying in the mantle at the outer edge of the 
shell, and can be readily seen. Fine pearls are fre- 
q^uently enclosed in the meat of the mussel and this 
should be carefully felt over. The shells should be 
examined as pearls are often attached. If a pearl is 
found attached to the shell, it is better to send the 
shell as it is to the buyer who will be able to remove 
the pearl to the best advantage. Fine pearls are fre- 
quently found in discarded shells. It is said that the 
Queen Mary, one of the finest pearls ever found in 
the Mississippi region, was nearly lost by oversight. 
The clammer had thrown the shells aside, when his 
wife looking them over, discovered the pearl attached 
to a shell. The finders sold it for |1,700, and it is 
reported to have sold later for many times that 
amount. 

Vane Simmonds, in his valuable book,* "Fresh 
Water Pearls,^' mentions the case of a boy at Genoa,- 
Wis., who found a discarded shell to which was at- 
tached a large growth. The boy's father took the 

•Fresh Water Pearls, by Vane Simmonds, Charles City, Iowa. 



shell to a local jeweler who bought it for $2,675. 
When the incrustment was removed a fine saucer- 
shaped pearl weighing 186 grains was discovered. 
Its value was estimated at from |12,000 to .|15,000. 

The experience of pearl fishermen has shown that 
there are certain indications by which the presence 
of a pearl within the mussel may sometimes be de-, 
tected. It is occasionally indicated by a slight bump 
or curvature on the outside of the shell. Shells that 
are honey-combed or bear excrescences and are gen- 
erally ill-looking, are most frequently found to con- 
tain pearls. 

It is difficult to estimate about what per cent of 
the mussels on an average contain pearls. One esti- 
mate is as follows :^^ one pearl to one hundred mussels 
and one per cent of the pearls are of good quality. 
This is a conservative estimate and the actual per- 
centage of pearls is probably greater. There is no 
certainty about it, and success in pearl fishing is 
largely a matter of good luck and hard work, princi- 
pally the latter. Where mussels are plentiful as they 
are along most streams, a great many can be exam- 
ined in a day. This makes the work profitable yield- 
ing on the average as much or more than ordinary 
labor, and there is always the possibility of making 
a rich find. 

Many persons make pearl fishing a business dur- 
ing the season in which it can be carried on. There 
are many people living in the vicinity of streams who 
fish for pearls at odd times and when other work is 

" Precious Stones, Max Bauer, p. 585. 
— 20 — 



not offered. Some do it as a vacation, camping along 
streams, enjoying the variety of the work and outing. 
Women and boys often make good money during the 
pearl fishing season. Anyone giving the work a fair 
trial is seldom unrewarded. 

It is sometimes surprising that there is not more 
pearl fishing done by people living in the vicinity of 
streams. If a diamond field should be discovered, 
the excitement would be great. Yet the next most 
valuable gem can be found in every river, stream and 
lake in the country, but until someone reports a big 
find, only a few people give any thought to the re- 
sources before them. 

It is not only the large rivers that have valuable 
pearl fisheries, but the small streams and creeks yield 
many of the finest pearls. Some of the streams are 
fished, some are already nearly exhausted, but the 
great pearl resources of the American streams as well 
as of lakes, remains as yet practically untouched. 
This wealth is the gift of nature, and needs only to 
be taken by those having the inclination and perse- 
verance to do it. 



30 — 



VALUE. 

In regard to the value of pearls much may be said 
in a general way though little can be written to aid 
one in determining the actual value of a particular 
pearl. There are so many circumstances affecting 
the value of this gem, that accurate judgment can be 
obtained only by one who has had a great deal of ex- 
perience with pearls and who is in close touch with 
the conditions of the pearl trade. It is only possible 
for a writer to refer to those qualities which a gem 
pearl must possess. 

Mr. Herman Myer has mentioned and described 
these qualities of a i)earl in a simple and direct man- 
ner.'^^ Mr. Myer has done very much to develop 
American pearl fisheries. He is a pearl dealer, thor- 
oughly familiar with the pearl trade and has always 
encouraged pearl fishing, both by giving good infor- 
mation to those desiring it and by giving good money 
for pearls. Mr. Myer mentions the following quali- 
ties that must be taken into consideration in the or- 
der named in determining the value of a pearl : Bril- 
liancy, Smoothness, Shape, Perfection, Size and Color. 

Brilliancy. By brilliancy is meant the peculiar 
lustre of the gem. A pearl, to be of any value what- 
ever, must be bright, like the brightest part of a shell. 



" Pearls : How to Find and How to Value Them." Herman 
Myer, 41 and 43 Maiden Lane, New York City. 

— 31 — 



A mistake commonly made is to think that every con- 
cretion found within a mussel is a pearl and hence 
of value. If the pearl does not possess a luster it is 
of no value, whatever its size and shape may be. 
Pearls that at first appear to one as having a good 
lustre may prove to be quite dull when compared 
with really fine gems. A pearl possessing a brilliant 
lustre seems to shine of itself. 

Smoothness. The surface of a pearl should be 
smooth, that is, free from wrinkles, knots, dents and 
the like. A slight imperfection of this sort may de- 
tract very much from the value of an otherwise per- 
fect pearl. 

Shape. The ideal shape of a pearl is round, 
though half-round (button pearls) and pear-shaped 
pearls have about equal value. Irregular shapes are 
of much less value, though the increased use of bar- 
oque pearls makes them of considerable importance. 

Perfection. A gem pearl must be free from spots 
and blemishes. Anything that mars the beauty of a 
pearl spoils it as a gem. The demand for perfect 
pearls is very great because wealthy people are willing 
to pay large sums for such gems, while imperfect 
ones are not wanted. It is for this reason that a 
slight imperfection reduces the value of a pearl very 
much. 

Size. Pearls are valued by weight, and the unit 
of weight is the pearl-grain, which equals 14 carat. 
The price given is usually so much per grain flat. As 
the weight of a pearl increases its value increases 

— 32 — 




Plate IV. Necklace of Fine American Pearls. 
This necklace numbers 41 pearls. There are 38 round pearls and three 
pear-shaped pendants. The total weight of the necklace is 1,935 grains. The 
largest pearl weighs 112 grains, the smallest weighs 24 grains. Three of the 
largest round pearls cost the dealer who made the collection $10,000 apiece. 
The necklace was sold abroad. 



very rapidly. For example, jewelers frequently de- 
termine the value of pearls by so much per multiple 
grain, which means the grain number multiplied by 
itself and the product multiplied by the price per 
grain multiple. That is, at |3 per grain multiple, 
a 6 grain pearl would be worth 6X6 = 36X3 = 108 
dollars, while a 12 grain pearl would be worth 
12 X 12 = 144 X 3 = 432 dollars. Although the 12 
grain pearl is only twice as large as the other, it is 
worth four times as much. When pearls are valued 
at a flat grain price the increased worth due to size 
is shown by a larger price per grain than would be 
paid per grain for a pearl of the same quality though 
of smaller size. Irregular shaped pearls do not in- 
crease greatly in value as they increase in size. 

Color. White is the standard color for a pearl. 
Colored pearls frequently bring as much and some- 
times more than white pearls of the same quality, 
but white is the color most preferred. Light pink, 
deep red, green and black are desired colors. Yellow, 
brown and dark pink are not. Besides a general 
preference for white pearls, another reason for the 
smaller value of colored pearls is that they are diffi- 
cult to match and their use in the making of jewelry 
is limited. 

There are outside circumstances that affect the 
value of pearls such as the fashion and condition of 
the pearl market. Moreover, a pearl is not like other 
articles of commerce in that as a usual thing there 
is no other pearl exactly like it and which will de- 
termine its value. Since there is no absolute stand- 

— 33 — 



ard to determine the value of a pearl, it must be fixed 
by agreement between the buyer and seller. As the 
demand for pearls is in the centers of wealth and 
fashion, it is usually for the advantage of pearl fish- 
ermen to sell their finds to responsible dealers who 
are familiar with the conditions of the pearl trade. 
Such buyers can usually do more for one in the way 
of price as well as in advising about pearls than per- 
sons who buy pearls for speculation. 

There need be no hesitation about sending pearls 
to dealers. If the price they offer is not satisfactory, 
they will return the pearls safely. If it is so desired, 
some dealers will place a very fine pearl in the market 
and attempt to get the price asked by the person 
sending it to them. 



— 34 



DEALERS IN AMERICAN PEARLS. 

It is not pretended that the following list of pearl 
dealers includes all who buy American pearls. Al- 
most every manufacturing and retail jeweler is ready 
and willing to buy American pearls. The parties 
listed either deal exclusively in American pearls or 
at least make them a specialty, and have acquired 
a reputation for promptness and fair dealing. The 
names and business addresses of these dealers are 
given for the convenience of those who may care to 
patronize them. 

Herman Myer, 41 and 43 Maiden Lane, New York. 

Grossman Co., 3 Maiden Lane, New York. 

L. Tannenbaum & Co., 15-17-19, Maiden Lane, New York. 

John F. Morse, 700 Postal Telegraph Bldg., Chicago, III. 

Max R. Qreen &Co., 301 Masonic Temple, Chicago, III. 

S. J. Son, 103 State, Street, Chicago, III. 

W. D. Burd, Vincennes, Ind. 

Frank Koeckeritz, Vincennes, Ind. 

William S. Miller, Clinton Iowa. 

Arthur Relchman, Nassau Street, New York. 

John M. Richard, 2 Maiden Lane, New York. 

Maurice W. Qrinberg, 527 Fifth Avenue, New York. 

Alfred H. Smith & Co., 452 Fifth Avenue, New York. 

Jos. Kaufman, 170 Broadway, New York. 

Henry E. Oppenheimer & Co., 3 Maiden Lane, New York. 

Amerinan Gem and Pearl Co., 14 Church St. New York. 

I, Quntzburger & Son, 1 1 John St., New York. 

Charles Adier's Sons, 527 Fifth Avenue, New York. 

Bunde & Upmeyer Co., Milwaukee, Wis.; 68 Nassau St., 

New York. 
Max Nathan Co., 68 and 70 Nassau St., New York. 
— 35 — 



CARE OF PEARLS. 

Pearls are of a delicate nature and require the 
exercise of care in handling them. They should not 
be carried loose in such a way that they can rub or 
strike together. 

Pearls should be shipped either by Registered 
Mail or by Express. It is not safe to send them by 
the ordinary mail as they are liable to be crushed in 
stamping or lost through the breaking of the package 
by the cancelling machine. When properly wrapt, 
they may be sent by Registered Mail or Express with 
perfect safety. 

Pearls may be wrapt by folding them in strong 
linen paper and enclosing them in an ordinary en- 
velope. If greater care is desired, they may be sent 
in small boxes made of stout paste-board or of wood. 

It is not advisable to try to improve the appear- 
ance of pearls by artificial means. The lustre of a 
pearl cannot be made brighter by polishing or by any 
other process. A pearl is the work of Nature, and if 
it is not completed, it cannot be helped. 



36 



ORIGIN OF PEARLS. 

It is evident that the formation of a pearl is not 
an ordinary or normal function of a mussel. If it 
were, all mussels or at least the greater number of 
them would contain pearls. As it is only the occa- 
sional mussel that produces a pearl, we are led to 
believe that pearl formation is started by some un- 
usual or accidental occurrence from which most mus- 
sels escape. 

There are various theories about this cause of 
pearl formation. These theories are not conflicting, 
however, and it will be seen that they are practically 
all based upon one principle, and that is the presence 
of something foreign to the mussel, which by its irri- 
tation or mere presence causes the mussel to secrete 
an abundance of pearly material in the form of a 
pearl. It is stated repeatedly, and there can be no 
doubt of the fact, that every pearl has a nucleus, 
that is, something in the center of the pearl which 
caused the mussel to cover it with nacre and thus 
create the pearl. Further, it seems evident, that there 
are many things which may act as nuclei or pearl- 
causing irritations, and so the formation of pearls 
may be started in several different ways. 

Perhaps the most common theory about the cause 
of pearl formation is that a grain of sand or some 
other small inorganic particle, gets into the mussel 
and there becomes the nucleus of a pearl. 

— 37 — 



Closely related to this view, is the theory that 
pearls are caused by the eggs of the mussel which 
have failed to be expelled, and which act as nuclei 
for pearls. In 1826, Sir E. Home pronounced this to 
be the cause of pearl formation. The theory had been 
advanced somewhat earlier as the following letter 
written by Christophorus Sandius in 1763, and 
quoted by Home,^'^ will show : "The pearl shells in 
Norway do breed in sweet waters; their shells are 
like mussels but larger. The fish is like an oyster, 
and it produceth a great cluster of eggs like those 
of crayfishes, some white, some black (which latter 
yet will become white the outer black being taken 
off) ; These eggs when ripe are caste out, but some- 
times it happens that one or two of these eggs stick 
fast to the sides of the matrix, and are not voided 
by the rest. These are fed by the oyster against her 
will, and they do grow according to the length of time 
into pearls of different bignesses, and imprint a mark 
both on the fish and the shell." 

It is no longer believed that the eggs of a mussel 
are the exclusive cause of pearl formation, but it is 
very possible that they may be one means of starting 
the growth of pearls. 

Another view is that the formation of a pearl is 
started by an accidental injury to the mussel. This 
is based upon the fact that pearls are frequently 
found in distorted and deformed shells. It is thought 
by some that this injury or irritation may be created 
by certain forms of animal life that eat or bore into 



Phiolsophical Transactions R. S. (1826), Vol. 2, page 338. 
-38- 



the shell, causing the mussel to secrete narce to pro- 
tect itself, and in this way occasionally forming 
pearls. 

Another theory is that pearl formation is started 
by a disease of the mussel which acts as a source 
of irritation. This view is based upon the fact that a 
large number of pearls are found in certain streams 
or at certain times indicating that many of the mus- 
sels might be affected by some disease that acted as 
a pearl producing cause. 

A recent theory and one founded upon careful 
scientific observation, is that pearl formation is 
caused by parasites. These are minute worms or 
other very small forms of animal life that get within 
the oyster and become the nuclei for pearls. This 
theory has been advocated during recent years by 
scientific men, especially those who have been work- 
ing upon the subject at the request of governments 
owning large marine pearl fisheries. Prof. W. A. 
Herdman, Mr. James Hornell, Dr. Jameson, M. Di- 
guet, M. Dubois, M. Seurat and others have contrib- 
uted much to the scientific knowledge of the pearl 
oyster and its pearl. The conclusion that seems to 
have been reached at present is that while parasites 
are not the only cause of pearl formation, they are 
the principal cause in producing the fine pearls. 

Prof. Herdman, who has been working at the 
British pearl fisheries in Ceylon, says,^^ — "Turning 
now to the subject of pearl formation, which is evi- 
dently an unhealthy and abnormal process, we find 



" Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 63, page 235. 
— 39 — 



that in tlie Ceylon oyster there are several distinct 
causes that lead to the production of pearls. Some 
pearls or pearly excrescences on the interior of the 
shell are due to the irritation caused by boring 
sponges and burrowing worms. Minute grains of 
sand and other foreign bodies gaining access to the 
body inside the shell, which are popularly supposed 
to form the nuclei of pearls, only do so, in our ex- 
perience, under exceptional circumstances." Prof. 
Herdman then concludes that most of the pearls 
found free in the tissues of the Ceylon oyster are 
caused by certain parasites. 

It seems plausible to believe that many of the fine 
pearls are formed by parasites. The parasitic nuclei 
are so small that pearls of perfect shape would be 
likely to occur, and it is possible that parasites would 
be more apt to affect the portions of the oyster where 
free and perfect pearls are formed, than inorganic 
particles which the oyster could rid itself of with 
greater ease. 

It by no means follows, however, that all pearls 
or even all fine pearls are caused by parasites. As 
suggested before, there are no doubt several different 
ways by which pearl formation may be started. More- 
over the theory that a grain of sand or some other 
small particle becomes the nucleus of a pearl, has the 
evidence of actual demonstration. Fine pearls have 
been found to be formed over pieces of clay and other 
particles of considerable size. Even tiny crayfish and 
other small animals have been found encrusted by 
nacre. Besides this, the experience of the Japanese 

— 40 — 



in growing culture pearls demonstrates that pearls 
may be formed over foreign particles as nuclei. 

There are even more positive proofs that the nuclei 
of pearls are very frequently inorganic particles. 
"Year by year some thousands of pearls are cut in 
half by working jeAvelers, and their universal experi- 
ence is that a nucleus is always to be found.'"* A 
pearl cutter and driller has this to say :'' "The halv- 
ing of a globular pearl is naturally through its cen- 
ter. Now, I have carefully examined the icrong side 
of thousands of half-pearls, noting the concentric 
riuffs or lines which indicate the onion-like construe- 
tion : using a powerful loupe, it is found usually that 
the center is a speck or something other than solidi- 
fied nacre; always a speck of material which is not 
identical with its surroundings. Picking at them 
with a fine-pointed needle loosened them, and under 
a strong glass it could be discerned that they were 
specks of mineral, vegetable or other composite mat- 
ter which was the nucleus around which the nacreous 
matter was deposited. Valuable pearls have been 
frequently rendered useless for their purpose by the 
ignorance of the driller that there is surely a central 
core, mayhap a speck of hard mineral in the linear 
course of the drill." Sometimes the center of a pearl 
is a cavity indicating that the nucleus may have been 
a form of animal life which had perished, leaving its 
shape impressed in the center. 

It is probable that the majority of the fresh-water 

"Pearls and Pearling Life, by Edwin W. Streeter, page 109. 
"■Jewelers' Circular Weekly, July 26, 1905- 
— 41 — 



pearls are formed from small inorganic particles as 
nuclei. Every stream carries a great deal of sand 
and particles of mineral in suspension and the bed 
of the stream on which the mussels lie is always in 
commotion. As the mussel draws a current of this 
water through its body in feeding, it must take in 
myriads of these small substances. It is natural to 
conclude that many of these act as nuclei for pearls. 
The abundance of irregular shaped fresh-water pearls 
tends to support this conclusion. 



42 



CULTURE PEARLS. 

"Among the picturesque industrial possibilities of 
our southern Pacific coast is the articfiial production 
of pearls. By this is meant, not the manufacture of 
artificial pearls, but the artificial growing of real 
pearls; that is, instead of the haphazard pearl fishing 
of the present, the establishment, on the Southern 
California coast, of oyster ranches, where the pearl- 
producing bivalves shall be scientifically directed and 
assisted in growing both gem pearls and mother of 
pearl.'"" 

The writer of the article referred to above sug- 
gests a matter of considerable importance and one 
that has received the attention and exercised the in- 
genuity' of many persons. The search for pearls is 
uncertain, and at best the production of fine pearls 
is exceedingly small. If a method could be devised 
by which the formation of a pearl could be started, 
it would then be carried on and completed in the 
same manner as natural pearls are formed. More- 
over, the beginning of the pearl formation not only 
could be made certain by such a method, but it might 
be guided and directed to the end of securing a 
greater number of perfect pearls. 

The theories of pearl formation have already been 
considered. In this connection it was seen that all 
the theories were based upon the intrusion or pres- 



'Popular Science Monthly, 49 .-390. 
— 43 — 



ence of sometliin*; foreign to the mussel. That this 
foreign particle, be it parasite, egg of the mussel, 
grain of sand or something else, acts as a nucleus for 
the pearl, receiving successive coatings of nacre. 
Working upon this principle many attempts have 
been made to grow pearls by introducing various for- 
eign substances into the oyster to induce the forma- 
tion of pearls. A brief review will be given of some 
of these attempts to grow pearls, the methods used, 
and the success with which they have been attended. 

It is a well known fact that for centuries the 
Chinese have been accustomed to insert small figures 
or images of the deity Buddha between the mantle 
and shells of river mussels. These figures are usually 
made of tin, tinfoil, lead or some metallic substance. 
These are allowed to remain in the mussel a few 
months in which time they are covered over with 
nacre. Thej are always attached to the shell and 
have to be cut from it. These images are curious, 
but their commercial value is practically nothing. 

It is to be observed that the object to be obtained 
is to induce the formation of "free" pearls, that is, 
pearls that are not attached to the shell. It is com- 
paratively easy to secure the covering of images witli 
pearl by a method similar to that used by the Chinese. 
The difficulty is to obtain free pearls of such quality 
as to be of commercial value. 

In the year 1761, Linneaus, a famous Swedish 
naturalist, made known that he had discovered a 
method by which mussels might be made to produce 
pearls. He sold the secret to a company that desired 

— 44 — 



i««f-. 






wl^ i- 



Plate V. Japanese Culture Pearls. Natural Size. 

(From Bulletin United States Bureau of Fisheries for 1904, Plate XI.) 



to try the method for its commercial value. Little 
seems to be known of the method or of its practical 
success. It has been said to have consisted of making 
a perforation in the shell, without the introduction 
of any foreign substance.^^ 

Experiments to cause freshwater mussels to pro- 
duce pearls have been undertaken at the pearl fish- 
eries of Saxony. A foreign substance is either intro- 
duced into the mantle to form the nucleus of a free 
pearl, or placed between the mantle and shell. The 
following quotation shows that the experiments have 
been attended with some success. "The cultivation of 
the pearls of fresh water mussels has become an indus- 
try of considerable importance in Saxony and other 
parts of Germany. The pearls are generally inferior 
but occasionally a gem of real excellence is pro- 
duced. "^^ 

In recent years the Japanese have had remarkable 
success in growing pearls. The following paragraph 
by K, Mitsukuri, Professor of Zoology in the Imperial 
University of Tokyo, is from the Bulletin of the 
Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, page 283 : "In 1890 I sug- 
gested to Mr. Mikimoto, a native of Shima, who had 
grown up and lived in the midst of the pearl-pro- 
ducing district, the desirability of cultivating the 
pearl oyster. He took up the subject eagerly and 
began making experiments on it. Soon after I point- 
ed out to him also the possibility of making the pearl 
oyster produce pearls by giving artificial stimuli. He 



"Notes and Queries. 7th Series, Vol. I, p. 128; Vol. VI, p. 125. 
"Popular Science Monthlj', 25 :430. 
— 45 — 



at once proceeded to experiment on it. The results 
have been beyond expectations, and today the Miki- 
moto pearl-oyster farm, put on a commercial basis, 
has thousands of pearl-oysters living on its culture 
grounds, and is able to place annually a large crop 
of pearls on the market." 

This company has been given a concession by the 
Imperial Government respecting rights to the sea in 
the bay of Argo. Here the pearl-producing oysters 
are grown and cared for. At the proper time they are 
treated to induce pearl formation. The methods 
known to be used, consist of the introduction of nuclei 
to be covered over with nacre. The nuclei are pieces 
of pearl shell cut in the shape of high button pearls. 
These are placed between the mantle and shell of the 
oyster, and allowed to remain from one to four years. 
When they are removed, they are usually attached to 
the shell, and so are in the shape of half pearls or a 
little more than half pearls, ^'but as regards lustre, 
shape, and size, they are beautiful beyond expecta- 
tions, and meet the requirements completely in cases 
where only half pearls are needed."^® 

It is evident that the pearls produced were of good 
quality. It is said that when Mr. Mikimoto submitted 
twenty-seven of the pearls to some royal people of 
Japan, they were so pleased with the gems that they 
bought them all at a large price.-" 

If the theory that most pearls are formed by the 
presence of parasites is accepted, other methods to 



"Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, page 284. 
"The Jewelers' Circular Weekly, Sept. 19, 1900. 
-46- 



induce pearl formation are required. In an article, 
"On the Origin of Pearls,"^^ Dr. H. Lyster Jameson 
concludes that fine pearls are caused by a parasitic 
worm, and says: "As an economic result of these 
investigations, it would seem that the artificial pro- 
duction of marketable pearls in large quantities 
should present no great diflftculties, if the particular 
cases be intelligently investigated. The fact that 
trematodes have been ascertained to be at least one 
cause of pearl formation in several of the mollusks 
that produce marketable gems gives us every reason 
to hope that, by learning the life-histories of these 
parasites, we may be able to infect any number of 
pearl-growing oysters or pearl-mussels to any desired 
extent, without any operation on the individual mol- 
lusks, by simply placing them in the proper surround- 
ings, in company with infected example of the first 
host. Once infected, the mollusks could be bedded 
out on suitable grounds, and left to care for them- 
selves, until the pearls formed in them were of mar- 
ketable size." 

This is well in theory but it has not as yet been 
worked out in practice. It is said that M. Dubois, a 
French naturalist, has succeeded in communicating 
the parasitic infection to oysters in such a way as to 
produce one or more pearls from every ten oysters. 
The pearls, however, were not of a size or quality to 

be of value. 

A company has recently been formed to grow 

"Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1902, Vol. I, 
pp. 140-166. 

— 47 — 



pearls at the Gulf of California. Its method includes 
the incubation and hatching of the pearl oysters, and 
a process of innoculation to induce pearl formation. 
The company has extensive concessions for pearl fish- 
ing, and it is not known exactly what success has been 
had with cultural pearls." 

Referring to the work of the Chinese, Mr. George 
F. Kunz says:^^ "This method of producing figures 
and symbols that could be used for ornaments is one 
that would recompense any American who would 
produce the same results in some of our richly colored 
and brilliantly lined Unios." The writer of this ar- 
ticle is aware of but one such enterprise in the United 
States, engaged also in the production of culture 
pearls, and with apparent success. In 1906 it was 
reported that the production of culture pearls in 
America was a rapidly developing industry, but there 
seems to have been little foundation for the report.^* 
It is not impossible that mussel farming may become 
an industry of some importance in the near future. 

"Pearl-oyster culture is still in its infancy, but 
its promises are bright. If, in addition to half pearls, 
full or 'free' pearls can be produced at will, as there 
are some hopes, it will be a great triumph for applied 
zoology."'^ 



^The Jewelers' Circular Weekly, Nov. i8, 1903. 

"^ Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1893, p. 456. 

'^ The Jewelers' Circular Weekly, Aug. i, 1906. 

*° Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, page 284. 



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